ABSTRACT
This study discusses the meanings and morphology of Lulogooli placenames in Sabatia constituency, using the Causal theory of Names as proposed by Gareth Evans (1985) and the Frame theoretical framework as proposed by Charles Fillmore (1985). The study outlines the morphological and morphophonological patterns followed during the formation of Lulogooli toponyms and classifies them accordingly. The study attempts to bring out the types of meanings present in Lulogooli toponyms and how they are enhanced by morphological units of the words. Morphological processes such as prefixation, suffixation and reduplication and morphophonological processes like vowel deletion which are of importance to this study are examined. The research is largely descriptive and the data was collected through oral structured interviews, introspection and questionnaires. The findings of the study indicate that Lulogooli toponyms do follow distinct morphological patterns of formation and derivation is the main one others being inflection, and compounding. Secondly, the toponyms can be classified morphologically into those same patterns as derived, inflected, compounded and those following no pattern. Thirdly, a naming system for Lulogooli toponyms was established which identified the motivations behind the identified toponyms. The classification was done by placing toponyms into categories depending on their meanings. Lastly, referential and other cognitive meanings of eleven toponyms from the categories of the established naming system were identified. The Causal theory allowed for identification of the referential meanings from the community while the Frame theory explains how the meanings are cognitively retrieved from the speakers’ mental encyclopedic knowledge. Tables guide the morphological analysis of toponyms and Frames are used to define concepts that guide the retrieval of meanings. The results show that the meanings of morphemes contribute to the overall meaning of Lulogooli toponyms.
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION 1.1 General Introduction
Onomastics, in particular toponymy, are an integral part of life, especially for Africans to whom culture and language are valued and inseparable. This study of the morphosemantics of Lulogooli place names is an attempt to analyze the morphological patterns and features of given placenames. It takes a look at how names are chosen while showing how sociocultural factors determine the (denotative and connotative) meaning of Lulogooli place names. The study will use the Causal Relations Theory of Names (1973) by Gareth Evans and the Frame Theory by Fillmore Charles (1982).
1.1.1 Background to the Study
Toponymy is the study of the place name of a region or language or especially the etymological study of them (Merriam-Webster.com.). Place names include names of districts, villages, topographical features, settlements, streets and houses. Names are an essential part of human existence since they are used to designate people places, things, pets and houses and it seems a universal practice (Crystal, 2003:140) . The society determines the types of names allotted to an entity
Although early linguistic debates determined that names only denote an entity when they are inactive and don’t have meaning (Anderson 2007: 276), naming in traditional society was not haphazard. According to Dobric (2009), modern Europeans forget that names, according to naming traditions in different cultures carry meaning in the original form from the point of creation. Names are usually used to show a person [place], and instances of naming may result from geographical terrain, nature phenomena, settlers and even after ancient gods, all things they can identify with Basso (1984: 26 cited in Helleland, 2012) asserts that place names do have meaning.” Place names refer….. [but] they are used and valued for other reasons as well… When
people settle down in a given area, they name the place for reasons of identification but when names are created, morphological structures as well as denotational meanings are considered.” This need is the source of innovations and naming of places while satisfying the need for identity. Names are not meaningless signs but a cultural must for communication of ideas. In this way, names have culturally unique place names with morphological patterns that are unique to a community. Crystal (2003: 140) indicates that place names can be a source of information on a society’s history, customs and past events. Communities have varying linguistic abilities and this uniqueness can possibly be found in place names, which are known to reflect not only physical characteristics of the place but characteristics of the community and the people’s linguistic history. This includes derivation and inflectional processes, preferred prefixes used and so on. Different morphologies may have an effect on meaning of a name.
Borrowed words and different naming systems can lead to differing morphological patterns (derivation, only prefixation or suffixation) hence varied meanings as a result. These borrowed words undergo morphological nativisation to cover for replacement of foreign sounds in the receiving language. Such morphological and possible semantic differences will also be considered in this study which aims at identifying and describing structure and meanings of Lulogooli place names, and if constituent morphemes influence their overall meanings.
1.1.2 Background to the Lulogooli Dialect
The Luhya are Southern Bantu language speakers who originated from the Niger – Congo language family. Luhya speakers are found in Western province, Kenya and Eastern Uganda. Lulogooli is one of the dialects that make up the larger Luhya language group.
Dialects in the Luhya group are mutually intelligible but have some lexical and phonological differences which the groups are proud of. The dialects include: Lunyore, Lwitaklho, Lukisa, Liwisukha, Lukhayo, Lunyala, Lumarama, Lusamia, Lutachoni, Lubukusu, Lukabarasi, Lutiriki, Luwanga and Lutara, Lulogooli along with Lwidakho, Lwisukha, and Lutiriki speakers.
As per the Kenya National Bureau of Statistics population and Housing Census (2009) data found in Ethnoologue (2015), the Luhya average 5, 219,800 speakers. Lulogooli speakers are placed at 618,000 speakers (2009), Lulogooli language is placed at a language educational status 4 which means the language is vigorously used with standardization and literature being sustained through a widespread system of institutionally supported by education (Ethnologue, 2015).
The root “-logooli can have different prefixes that bring about different meanings such as”
Lulogooli – The language
Vologoli – place inhabited by Lulogooli speakers.
Mulogooli – a Lulogooli speaker
Valogooli – Lulogooli speakers
Maragoli is the educated version referring to the people. The Lulogooli speakers identify Mulogooli as their ancestor.
1.2 Statement of the Problem
Names are important part of our society since they designate individual people, places and things and fulfil the desire for unique identification. The question of whether names have meaning or not is long standing issue for linguists and philosophers alike (UIlmann, 1962:77 cited in Helleland 2012, Trask, 2007) indicate that general nouns are seen as being meaningful units while proper names stand as mere identification marks. Place names, however, are formed from meaningful morphemes, and so should carry meaning.
A previous study (Malande, 2011) was concerned with the semantics of Lulogooli personal names, and used the Semiotics theory of signs to establish that the names have both connotational and denotational meaning. There has not been, to my knowledge, any known literature on the Lulogooli place names. In his conclusion, Malande (2011:216), notes that the meaning of Lulogooli personal names require one to learn the origins of all such names for example. place names, names of natural phenomena, such as famine, poverty among others.
Therefore, this Morphosemantic study of Lulogooli place names is undertaken to find out whether toponyms have a variety of meanings and a naming system, by going back to the origins. The study will also attempt to describe the morphological pattern of place names and classify them accordingly. This is to show how by means of language, speakers describe their surroundings since place names are representations of the linguistic history and ability of the speakers. This study will use the Causal Theory of Names by Gareth Evans (1982) and the Frame Theory (1985) making it different from previous name studies worldwide used other theories to analyze personal and place names meanings.
1.3 Research Questions
- Do Lulogooli toponyms have distinct morphological patterns?
- Can toponyms be morphologically classified?
- Is there a naming system for Lulogooli place names?
- What are the distinctive meanings of Lulogooli toponyms?
1.4 Objectives of the Study
- To identify and describe morphological patterns followed during the formation of Lulogooli toponyms.
- To identify morphological classification of Lulogooli toponyms
- To establish the naming systems of places in Lulogooli
- To investigate and analyze different meanings of Lulogooli toponyms
1.5 Significance/Justification for the Study
This study of the morphosemantics of Lulogooli place names is a first in the Lulogooli language. using the Causal theory of names framework. A previous study used the traditional Semiotic theory of signs to analyze the semantics of Lulogooli personal names. A gap exists as there is no known literature on meaning and internal structure of Lulogooli place names. Malande (2011) recommends a study into the origins of Lulogooli place names and other natural phenomena names. Our study seeks to give ideas on the morphosemantics of Lulogooli place names in an attempt to identify the different meanings of place names as brought out by their morphological patterns.
The study will contribute to morphosemantics since it allows for the documentation of the Lulogooli dialect of the Luhya language in onomastics especially toponymy. The findings will provide dialectologists who have research interests in Lulogooli with information that can be used in analyzing other Luhya related dialects. Lexicographers interested in writing a dictionary about Lulogooli can get meanings of place names and their origins. The study explores place names and how unique morphological structure help in producing meaning. Linguistics students and others from other disciplines like anthropology, geography philosophy and African languages should find thus research as eye opening on both the culture and dialect of the Maragoli people as shown by how they are applied in the language.
The study will help other researchers intending to carry out research on a topic relating to the morphology or semantics of names. The general public will benefit from the study’s findings as it will increase their knowledge of the morphosemantics of place names.
1.6 Scope and Limitations of the Study
The study was limited to research on meanings (denotational, referential and connotational) and the morphological patterns of place names only in Lulogooli. The analysis was done using the Causal Theory of Names introduced by Bertrand Russell and improved on by Kripke Saul and later revised by Gareth Evans (1973). In addition, the Frame theory by Charles Fillmore (1982) is used to explain how concepts allow for a clarification of the meaning. The study was conducted in Sabatia and Vihiga Counties where there is a variety of place names. The study limits itself to the variations of the Lulogooli dialect. This study did not study personal names and names of items in the dialect. This study is not a comparative one.
1.7 Literature Review
In this chapter we review previous studies that relate to the main areas of study-morphosemantics and toponyms. The chapter begins with toponymic researches, reviewing literature on Toponymy with the next part being on literature on morphology and semantic analyses of onomastics generally and toponyms in English, African languages and world languages like Russian.
1.7.1 Review of Literature on Onomastics: Toponymy and Meaning
Onomastics is the study of names or the etymology of proper names while toponymy is a branch of onomastics which refers to the study of place names. Lulogooli toponyms will be studied to identify their meanings
Jackson and Amvela (2007) describe the notion of word as ‘… an uninterruptible unit of structures consisting of one or more morphemes’ (2007:59), and characteristics of a word are described. The authors also define reference while clearly differentiating connotation and denotation, reference and sense. Reference is described as not possible for a single word since it shows a relationship with a referent in the real world. The work will be relevant in analyzing reference in Lulogooli toponyms.
Leech (1983:9) identifies seven types of meaning: conceptual, (cognitive /denotational), social, affective, reflected, collocative and thematic meanings. It doesn’t limit meaning to conceptual meaning only. Connotation is described as ‘… the real world experience one associates with an expression when one uses or hears it’ (1983:13) while denotation is the basic word meaning. Reflected meaning involves synonyms where a word has many conceptual meanings. Collocative meaning is what a word acquires due to words that usually occur with it. Social meaning is about emotions and tones which may be hard to detect in names. Thematic meaning is see to be relating constructions that are mostly syntactic. The book clearly describes in detail how the meanings are got at the book will be useful in identification of the meanings in Lulogooli toponyms, although some of the meanings cannot be easily identified in names.
Palmer (1986), gives a detailed description of what meaning is, particularly in linguistics. Under the scope of semantics, the notion of naming is discussed and how names denote things in the real world or not. Meaning doesn’t have to be only denotational and concepts, sense and reference and the notion of the word are described in detail. The book will be useful in assisting the researcher to understand and identify types of meaning in the Lulogooli toponyms.
In his study on Lulogooli personal names, What is in a name? Malenya (2011) sets out to establish that these personal names have both connotative and denotative meaning. The author disputes the theories claiming that origins of names have very limited value. The writer uses the semiotics theory of signs and sign systems that allow people to predict, apprehend learn how meanings are developed (2011:211). The signs and are constituted by relations like synonymy. The writer studies names in text and context and the personal names are seen to have two meanings; denotative and connotative, identified from substantial data.
In conclusion, Malenya (2011:216) recommends that place names and natural phenomena names should be analyzed for origin and thus meaning and that a study on significance between surface and hidden meaning be done. The study did not look at religious meaning. This study will help us to understand and identify the denotative and connotative meaning of Lulogooli names. Helleland (2012) in an attempt to find out the meaning of place names argues that there is an intimate relationship between place and place names. In addition, he explains how place names create a sense of identity in a place through the attachment feelings of belonging. People as indicated in her survey are connected by place names which recall experiences and memories of varied feelings (2012:95). People thrive on developing familiar connections with each other in a community by having (2012:96) the names and the stories create the spirit of a place. He discusses the aspect of meanings of place names as symbolic and name changes are fought (2012:96) since they may commemorate or place names are identified as source of linguistic, psychological ethnographic, geographical knowledge.
Helleland contradicts statements by linguists like Stuart Mills that names lack meaning, and says that a name’s meaning depends on context differing from individual to individual and (2012:100) identifies place names as link to the past heritage and enrichment of history, ‘denoter’ but also full of meaning and connotations… Place names are seen as symbols of acts and experiencing both in tribal and western context and are social signals of belonging.
In conclusion, Helleland says that names particularly place names create nostalgia in people mentally for cultural and personal experiences. Though the work partly covers symbolic meaning, he does explain how a sense of identity is fostered in place names. The study had no clear theoretical framework. However, I agree with the analysis of data although a modern theory of meaning could have been used. The language researched on is relevant to my study in Lulogooli and will help us, since peoples’ identity includes connotative meanings, and the study is elaborate on that. Letsoela (2015) looks at place names as being full of cultural reasons that led to the naming of bus stops. The discussion is clear and (2015:6) the writer indicates that for most of the names the referent can be easily located by a fluent speaker of Sesotho. This may apply in some aspects but mostly to a resident of the area. The writer uses a mode of categorizing names as experiential and mythological which are new concepts that I found interesting. This study is beneficial to my research on semantics of place names especially since it has an African aspect to it.
1.7.2 Morphological Patterns
Morphology of a word is the study of form or ‘elements’ in a word known as morphemes (Yule, 2005:62-63). Toponyms are words put to daily use so have a morphological structure that would allow for analysis of meanings of morphemes in relation to the resultant words meaning. Yule, (2006:62-72) gives an explanation of morphological structural elements (morpheme types) and how to give a morphological description. Our study will in particular look at inflectional and derivational morphemes, also described in the work, which are important in bringing out meaning of a word. The work will be useful in our study for morphological descriptions.
Bach (2009: online article) predicts that complex meanings are made up uniformly across words and syntactic phrases and raises the question of whether word internal and external languages from polysynthetic, isolating, agglutinating and fusional languages. He states that in translation to English, the words have a number of concepts each. The writer classifies words as phonological, morphological, and syntactic and lexical and how each meaning can be derived differentiating inflectional grammar (synchronic) with derivational grammar (diachronic). The analysis of several languages derivations for semantic and lexical features is well done with an explanation of how different classes of work derivations have. The work looked at denotational meaning only but the work is helpful in understanding agglutinating languages like Lulogooli morphosemantics.
Marjie-Okyere (2015:33) research uses an inflectional and derivational approach to describe the morphological patterns of names. Names, being words that exist in a language are supposed to have some form of formation pattern. The author analyses personal, place and names of things using direct and indirect reference approach, on derivational and inflectional basis. Derivational patterns change a words semantic meaning or word class while inflections don’t. We agree with that. The morpheme patterns are described in terms of affixation for gender in personal names, prefixation of –e-‘for places and morphemes that are fixed to borrowed words and names of things. This is an approach our study will follow looking at differences in affixation and Nativization. The writer (Marije-Okyere) concedes that traditional names identify with the community. The work done on place names was good especially since Lubukusu is a dialect in Luhya.
Gudeta, (2014:252-259) in analyzing Oromo Personal Names states that names relate with other sections of culture and depict solidarity and identity (2014:254). This statement and conclusion that personal names have meaning derived from content words is good for my study since place names also are derivational. The analysis of morphological structure of names was good and denotational meanings and referential meanings were given and a clear explanation of associations done. Lulogooli names (place) draw some meanings from association. The work is relevant to my study.
1.8 Theoretical Framework/ Theory
This section discusses two theories. Naming is a practice that concerns many disciplines, like anthropology, philosophy, geography linguistics among others; therefore, research can be done with a theoretical framework from any field of study.
The Causal Theory of Names/ The Naming Theory, was pioneered by Bertrand Russell (1905) as the Descriptivist theory of the reference of names, then into the Causal Theory of the Reference of names championed by Kripke Saul (Kripke, 1972) later modified by Gareth
Evans (Evans, 1973) to The Causal Theory of Names. The theory proposes analysis of the meaning of proper names by relating a name with its referent in the real world. Trask (2007:245) describes reference as the relation between a linguistic expression and something picks out in the real or conceptual world and that referring expressions are usually nouns. This fits in with analysis of Lulogooli place names which are assumed to have a real world referent.
The second theory is the Frame theory by Fillmore Charles which explains how we access the meaning of toponyms from encyclopedic knowledge through the use of related concepts. The knowledge is the information the speaker has about the place.
1.8.1 The Causal Theory of Names
The Causal Theory of Names was proposed by Gareth Evans, and is concerned with analyzing the meaning of names using CAUSAL RELATIONS. The theory explains that an objects possession of most of the descriptions associated with it is not important, but that the object is the DOMINANT SOURCE of the descriptions we associated with the name (1973:304.). The main issues concerning meanings of names, was the distinction between speakers’ denotation and name denotation. Evans summed up the two descriptivist sub theories distinguished this: Speaker’s denotation is what a name denotes upon a particular occasion of its use (1973: 296). A name [on a particular occasion of its use by a speaker (S)] denotes whatever unique item most or all of the descriptions. (S) would associate with that name. This means that the meaning of a name, can only be derived, when an item possesses majority of the referents characteristics.
Name denotation are what conditions have to be satisfied by an expression [x] and an item [y] for [x] to be a name of [y] (1976: 296). A name (as used by a group of speakers) is associated with a description or set of descriptions (obtained from the belief of those speakers). The bearer of the name is the object that satisfied these descriptions.
Evans proposes that the speaker’s denotation is a combination of two requirements: INTENTION: In order to be saying something by uttering an expression one must utter the sentence with certain intentions i.e.one must be aiming at something with ones use of the name (1973:297) and PHILOSOPHY OF MIND: To have an intention or belief concerning something one must be in possession of a description uniquely true of it (1973: 297). Therefore, for there to be a link between the real world and speaker or hearer’s meaning there should be causal relations, the backbone of the theory.
CAUSAL RELATIONS
For (S) to believe that a is F (where a is a name) there has to be some causal relation involving ‘a’ the name’ and S’s use of the name. For speakers of a language to use and believe that for example Wamage is a name there should be a connection between the name and the speaker’s use of and knowledge about the name. Evans disqualified Kripke’s view that dubbing of a name makes it a name and
| modified it. | causal | |||
| Kripke. | DUBBING | relation | SUBSEQUENT USE OF THE NAME | |
| Evans | ||||
| OBJECT NAMED | causal | SPEAKERS BODY OF INFORMATION | ||
relation
ASSOCIATED WITH THE NAME
An example is: the reason why Madagascar names an island is NOT that speaker believe what they call Madagascar fits the Island and not the mainland BUT because the island itself plays a dominant causal role in their acquisition of beliefs. As seen above, in this theory, the causal connection is NOT the dubbing of a name and S’s subsequent use of it BUT, the named item and the body of information that speakers associate with the use of the name.
The Causal theory combines the Descriptivist theory and the Causal theory. FROM THE DESCRIPTIVE THEORY, the denotation of a name is fixed by the bodies of information (like clusters), FROM CAUSAL THEORY OF REFERENCE -the fixing of the denotation of a name is by causal origin not fit.
1.8.1.1 Rules of the Causal Theory of Names
- is a name of x (if and only if) There is a community in which people
- Use NN to refer to x.
- It is common knowledge that NN is so used for x
- The reference relies on the common knowledge of the community and not on the knowledge that x satisfies some predicate embedded in NN.
- When NN refers to x, it relies on a notion that speakers of the language do use NN to refer to x only if x is the dominant source of information that they associate with NN.
Place names, are referent and. when used, are supposed to be the dominant source of information that’s associated with the name. 2) In line with the second principle, the conceptual meanings are got through use of causal relations between society’s knowledge and the object thus named. The causal connection is the named item and the knowledge associated with the name.
Names are viewed as a product of the environment, so need to study how names related with the society. This theory will thus be important for analyzing, meanings of Lulogooli place names by considering the community that uses the name to refer to a given place. This reference also has to be what the speakers believe and accept as the name of an entity in this case a place, this reference solely relies on shared knowledge and not by virtue of sharing characteristics of the referent. The knowledge is derived solely from the name as a dominant source associated with the name. Evans shows that there are causal relations which are the connection between a named entity’s state in relation to the speaker’s knowledge of its meaning. This will assist in bringing out referential meaning of Lulogooli place names. Secondly the theory’s principles are universal and relate to the society which originates the names hence fit in with traditional African society. When a society has a belief about a place, the place itself causes them to believe Example the word “Wamage’ a Lulogooli place name draws input from the place itself, which has a large population of termites. By linking back to the society, we will also find out if there is a naming system for place names.
1.8.2 The Frame Theory
The frame theory proposed by Charles Fillmore is cognitive theory. Cognitive linguistics is an approach to the study of language, which emerged in 1970s whose proponents were Charles Fillmore, George Lakoff, Ronald Langacker, Leonard Talmy, Evan Thompson, and others. Cognitive Linguistics is concerned with investigating the relationship between human language, the mind and socio-physical experience and states meanings do not exist independently from the people that create and use them.
1.8.2.1 Frame Semantics
It contends that lexical concepts can only be understood through recourse to mentally schematized structures, borne of past experiences and argues that meaning is encyclopedic, and that experiences stored in long term memory offer a background on which future concepts are interpreted.
Fillmore (1982:111) explains “Frame semantics offers a particular way of looking at word meanings, as well as a way of characterizing principles for new words and phrases, for adding new meanings in words and for assembling the meaning of elements in a text into the total meaning of a text.” In short, frame semantics is an attempt to arrive at the meaning of (a word) by relating it to a larger background. Language represents sociocultural life, can be understood only by considering its acquisition, and mental processes. Thus the need for frames in name analysis is to relate cultural knowledge and the mental concepts.
Frame semantics holds the proposition that Meanings are relativised to scenes (Fillmore, 1977). Meanings can thus be determined according to background frame or scene.
1.8.2.2 Theoretic Principles
The main theoretic principles of frame semantics are: frame, prototype, profiling.
- Frame
The frame is a collection of knowledge about a certain situation, which is stored in the mind of an individual and the different aspects of the frame to which we direct our attention, influence our linguistic expressions.
Fillmore (1982:112) defines ‘frame’ as “…any system of concepts related in such a way that to understand any one of them you have to understand the whole structure in which it fits; when one of the things in this structure is introduced into a text, or into a conversation, all the others are automatically made available.”
The study of Frame semantics involves identifying different frames, the semantic roles involved in each scene per frame, and how different frames interrelate.
Fillmore (1985) discusses the different scenes evoked by the sentences:
I can’t wait to be on the ground again.
I can’t wait to be on land again.
Even though the two words, ground and land, refer to the same thing, sentence 1 evokes a speaker who is in the air (on the plane), while 2 evokes a speaker who is at sea (on a ship). Land is therefore understood within a conceptual frame of sea travel, and within that frame it is opposed to sea, while ground is understood within a conceptual frame of air travel, and within that frame, it is opposed to air. In this example, the frame is tied to the senses of the words land and ground. Due to shared encyclopedic knowledge, many interpretations of situations are made by invoking the appropriate frame even when the words used are not explicit
- Prototype
The word prototype refers to an instance of category or concept that combines its most representative attributes in the community example a weaver bird is a prototype of a bird as opposed to a penguin in the Maragoli community.
(Fillmore 1982: 117-8) uses the concept of prototype with respect to frames and not words, in his own words; “…very often, the frame or background against which the meaning of a word is defined and understood is a fairly large slice of the surrounding culture, and this background understanding is best understood as ‘prototype’. Prototypical information is inbuilt, for example within a frame for a computer, related devices such as keyboard, mouse and monitor etc. are assumed to be inclusive in the offer.
- Profiling
Another central notion within frame semantics is the concept profiling. With this goes the argument that, even though a frame may consist of / profiles different parts, they cannot be interpreted independently but have to be interpreted with respect to the frame.
Langacker (1987) uses the example of hypotenuse to illustrate that, one cannot imagine the concept hypotenuse without imagining the whole right angled triangle. Thus, though the hypotenuse and the right angle profile different parts, they are interpreted with respect to the frame of a right angled triangle in which they are both included.“…sometimes word meanings differ not in what they profile, but in how they profile it. In such cases, I will say words differ in perspective (Fillmore, 1977a) The principle that we will rely on in analyzing place names is the frame as will be explained below.
Why use frames
The Causal Theory of Names explains that meanings are got from speakers’ shared knowledge, but there is no clarification on how the retrieval and analysis of meaning is done. The Frame Semantic theory elaborates on this.
As a cognitive linguistic theory, Fillmore’s frame theory investigates language in relation to other non-linguistic components like knowledge and experience, which influence its understanding. Fillmore elaborates that (1982:112) in Frame Semantics, a word represents a category of experience; part of the research endeavor is the uncovering of reasons a speech community has for creating the category represented by the word and including that reason in the description of the meaning of the word.
This is suitable for analysis of place name meaning by enabling us to relate the place names in the language to the real world experiences of the speakers, that are part of their knowledge. The mind plays an important role in interpreting lexical items as well as larger structures. This knowledge about what is named will ensure elicitation of concepts that explain their meaning. Our cognitive abilities schematize every lexical sense in frames which are activated when we encounter the word. Some frames integrate with others while others even become sub frames of larger ones. When a proper name (place) is mentioned, ideas that are like scenes arise in the mind about its meaning. Lehrer and Kittay (1992:137) justify the need for fields and frames in analyzing meanings of names, as each frame/domain (example places) have different name schemes and the meaning of proper names is relevant to the name (1992: 137 -140) and the names draw from common nouns so have to retain some characteristics of their semantics, brought out through frames.
1.9 Research Hypotheses
- Lulogooli toponyms have distinct morphological patterns.
- Many Lulogooli toponyms formed through systematic morphological processes.
- Lulogooli place names follow a naming system
- Lulogooli toponyms have a variety of meanings
1.10 Methodology
This chapter gives a description of the research design, data collection and methods of data collection and analysis used in the study.
1.10.1 Method of Data Collection
The study was carried out in Sabatia constituency where many native Lulogooli speakers are found.
According to Kothari (2004:37) ‘Studies concerned with specific predictions, with narration of facts and characteristics concerning individual, group or situation are all examples of descriptive research studies.’ So this research used descriptive design because it deals with social issues and involves having objectives of the study, having specific methods of data collection from Sabatia in particular analyzing the data and describing the findings. Data was obtained first hand from respondents in order to be able to reach a sound conclusion and recommendations. The data of sixty-four toponyms was collected by means of questionnaires and oral structured respondent interviews carried out in their homes. The researcher, being a native speaker of the dialect, used intuition and natural observation to supplement the toponyms morphological patterns and classify them accordingly. The study used judgmental sampling technique to select the participants where, the researcher decided on who is most suitable to provide the most accurate data. The target population was around twenty local elders who are native speakers of the language and the researcher’s five assistants managed to get fifteen of the intended number. The respondents, who were both male and female, provided both the toponyms of their area and their meanings. The participants were aged fifty years and above since they are old enough to have knowledge of the place name meanings.
1.10.2 Data Analysis
The Lulogooli data was translated into the English equivalent while maintaining the meanings and then analyzed using the Causal theory of Names and frames in the Frame Theory Analysis of the collected data was done in three steps: Classifying data according to morphological patternsIdentifying the underlying events, people, phenomena behind the names Identifying the meanings
The collected data was represented in tables that identify the classification and morphological patterns found in the toponyms. The naming system was established through description while Frames explained how meanings of Lulogooli toponyms are drawn from the mind. This data was analyzed to give us an implied picture of the research’s strengths, weaknesses and opportunities through classification. A summary of the findings was written to guide the conclusion and recommendations for further research given.
1.11 Conclusion
The chapter gives the information on the background to the study, purpose, and problem of the study, objectives, research questions, significance and scope of the study.
