ABSTRACT
Indiscriminate use of antibiotic in animals and human to control bacterial disease create resistant bacteria. It is therefore imperative to seek alternative treatment for the control of Pasteurellosis caused by Pasteurella multocida mitltocida A:4 in quails. Quail meat and eggs are renowned for their high quality protein and low caloric values. Garlic is bactericidal, cheap and available without toxicological effects. One hundred, four (4) week old Japanese male and female quails (Coturnix coturnix japonicd) were randomly divided into ten groups (A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H, I and J) of ten birds each. Group A was not inoculated with Pasteurella multocida multocida serotype A:4 at 104 colony forming unit (cfu/ml), thus serving as negative control. Group B was inoculated with Pasteurella multocida multocida serotype A:4 as positive control for comparism without treatment, Group C was inoculated and treated with ciprofloxacin, group D, E and F were inoculated and treated with garlic in feed at 3%, 5% and 10% respectively, groups G to J were inoculated and treated with garlic in water at 1%, 1.67%, 3.3% and 3.3% respectively. Ciprofloxacin in water and garlic infeed or water were administered three (3) days before inoculation. All the groups B to I were inoculated with Pasteurella multocida mulocida serotype A:4 at 104, (cfu)/bird except group J that was inoculated with 106cfu/bird. Half of the infective dose was administered intranasally while the second half was given intramuscularly (pectoral muscle). Clinical signs, morbidity and mortality rates were monitored for 13 more days. The values of packed cell volume (PCV), total plasma protein (TP) body weight gain (BWG) were determined. Gross and microscopic lesions in sections of heart, liver and spleen were evaluated on days two (2) and 13 post inoculation in all the groups for comparism. Daily cloacal temperature were also taken. The effect of ciprofloxacin, garlic concentrations in-feed, and water were determined based on mortality at the end of the experiment. The results showed that there was loss of appetite, somnolence and hurdling together were initially noted a day post inoculation in groups B, F, G and I. The value of PVC were significantly reduced (p<0.05) in all the inoculated groups. However, there was significant (p<0.05) increment in PCV after 4-5 days post inoculation. There was significant increase (P<0.05) in temperature in all the groups that were inoculated as compared to the negative control (group A). However, these temperature dropped to normal values including the negative control (group A) except in the positive control (Group B). Generally, there was increase in body weight gain in all groups. On day three (3) post inoculation, microscopic sections of the spleen of quails inoculated with Pasteurella multocida muhocida A:4 showed depletion of lymphocytes at the germinal centres. In the liver, there were fatty degeneration, congested sinusoids and distorted hepatic architecture while the heart had mononuclear cellular infiltration. However, at 13 days post inoculation, the spleen, liver and heart showed normal photomicrograph. Mortality started a day post inoculation and ended five (5) days post inoculation. The highest reduction of mortality was observed in ciprofloxacin treated water at 10% concentration (mortality rate 20%) followed by garlic treated water at 3.3%. Concentration (mortality rate 30%). Garlic at 3.3% concentration in water reduced the effect of pasteurellosis.
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background to the Study
The use of plants in the treatment of livestock diseases problems dates back to several centuries as ancient traditions of raising livestock employed the use of ethnoveterinary medicine (Wanzala et al., 2005). Historical records of the use of ethnoveterinary practices are over 14,000 years old. For example, the use of Ayurvedic medicine in Sri Lanka in the treatment of horses and elephants in 3,000 BC (Githiori et al., 2005; Wanzala et al., 2005). Many of the active ingredients in chemically manufactured drugs were originally derived from plants. For instance, morphine was isolated from the opium poppy (Papaver somniferum) in 1806 by Frederick Surturner (Schiff, 2002) and salicylic acid in 1839 (Schiff, 2002; Wanzala et al., 2005). Thus, plants used in traditional medicine constitute an important source of new biologically active compounds (Masoko et al., 2007).
Recently, interest in ethnoveterinary medicine, especially with regards to medicinal plants is on the increase. This is due to the rapid emergence of new diseases and organisms which are resistant to available drugs (Wanzala et al., 2005; Masoko et al., 2007). Gammaniel (2000), reported that people who employ the use of medicinal plants in the treatment of disease believe that medicinal plants are in their natural state and less toxic thus, making them safer than manufactured drugs, in addition to being relatively cheap when compared to manufactured drugs. In developing countries, medicinal plants are still used on a regular basis (Wanyama, 2000). This is because they are more accessible than manufactured drugs especially where modern techniques are non-existent and or even when available are too expensive (Wanyama, 2000; Alawa et al., 2002; Wanzala et al., 2005). The World Health Organization has estimated that perhaps 80% of the inhabitants of the world rely chiefly on traditional medicines (WHO, 1993). It therefore approved the use of herbal products for national policies and drug regulatory measures in order to strengthen research and evaluation of the safety and efficacy of these products (Wolfgang, 2005; Saxena, 2010).
Quail farming was introduced into Nigeria in 1992 to boost sources of animal protein for the populace (Haruna et al., 1997). The short generation interval, fast growth and lower feed requirement made it an ideal bird and an additional source of revenue for low and medium income poultry farmers. Quails are considered to be more resistant than chickens and turkeys to common poultry diseases (Naveen and Arun, 1992). Despite their relative resistance to infection there have been reports on the susceptibility of quails to salmonellosis, ulcerative enteritis, botulism, colibacillosis, fowl cholera, Marek‟s disease, aspergillosis and candidiasis (Sharma and Kaushik, 1986; Naveen and Arun, 1992). Of the bacterial diseases affecting quails, avian pasteurellosis (fowl cholera) caused by Pasteurella multocida multocida is the most economically detrimental because of its rapid onset and potential to cause high morbidity and mortality (Odugbo et al., 2004).
Pasteurellosis was first reported in commercially raised bob white quails (Colinus virginarus) in 1982 (Panigraphy and Glass, 1982). It has also been reported in captive California valley quail (Lophortyx caflfornicus) in 1943 (Hinshaw and Emlen., 1983) and Japanese quails (Coturnix japonica) in the USA (Glisson et al., 1989), India (Chandran et al., 1995) and Japan (Goto et al., 2001).
Fowl cholera was first reported in Nigeria in quails 1999 and since then there have been 11 reported outbreaks (Odugbo et al., 2004). The disease occurred in peracute and acute forms in which large numbers of quails were usually found dead in good body condition, with no premonitory clinical signs. In a few cases, noticeable clinical signs included marked depression, anorexia, fetid diarrhoea with apparent dehydration and lethargy, with death occurring a few hours after the onset of clinical signs (Odugbo et al., 2004). Postmortem examination showed that gross lesions were absent in most of the birds. Although few that showed lesions of vascular disturbance were associated with the acute disease including general hyperaemia, and swollen liver with multiple small areas of necrosis; other lesions include thrombi in the lungs and liver, petechial and ecchymotic haemorrhages involving the epicardium of the heart and increased pericardial and peritoneal fluids (Odugbo et al., 2004).
1.2 Statement of the Research Problem
One of the important challenges of quail (Coturnix coturnix japonica) producers is preventing disease outbreaks. Quails are susceptible to a variety of non-infectious, infectious and parasitic diseases. Because they are related to chickens and turkeys, many of the diseases in quails are similar to those in poultry (Myint and Carter, 1988). The three most common diseases that have been reported to occur in quails include bronchitis, ulcerative enteritis and quail pox (Dozie and Bramwell, 2002). Other conditions reported in quails include salmonellosis, botulism, colibacillosis, fowl cholera, Marek‟s disease, aspergillosis and candidiasis (Khare et al., 1975; Sharma and Kaushik, 1986; Naveen and Arun, 1992), Newscatle disease (Higgins and Wong, 1968; Lima et al., 2004; Oladele et al., 2008) and Pseudomonas aeruginosa infection (Badr et al., 2006). In a survey between 1999 and 2002, eleven outbreaks of pasteurellosis occurred in Nigeria involving flocks of about 7,000 – 10,000 Japanese quails (Odugbo et al., 2004). The farm suffered high mortalities involving 250 – 500 deaths of 4 week old quails in each outbreak. The isolates from the outbreaks were identified as Pasteurella multocida multocida serotype A4. In Nigeria, fowl cholera is major constraint to poultry production and outbreak could cause high mortalityrate of up to 80% (Abdu, 1990; Ambali et al., 2003; Odugbo et al., 2004; Akpavi et al., 2011). Indiscriminate use of antibiotics in animals and humans create resistant bacteria (Javandel, et al., 2008). There is increasing pressure to reduce the use of antibiotics in poultry feed due to negative human health issue arising from antibiotic resistance (Javendel, et al., 2008). It is imperative to seek for alternative treatment of fowl cholera in quails, because the birds are consumed by human beings. The mechanism of transfer of drug from animals to human via the food chain is still incomplete (Janvan, 1998). Human physicians however believed that the use of antibiotic in animal health contribute substantially in this resistance (Janvan, 1998). Researching on garlic as alternative to antibiotics for the treatment of fowl cholera in quails prompted this research.
There is no research work or report in the literature on the use of garlic for the treatment of fowl cholera in chicken in Nigeria. This research therefore is designed to provide information on the efficacy of garlic for the treatment of fowl cholera in quails.
1.3 Justification of the Study
Poor animal health is an important factor limiting animal productivity in most developing countries. In many of these countries there has been a decline in funding for veterinary services and animal health care in general (CTCAR, 1987; Alawa et al., 2002). Traditional remedies on the other hand, are more readily available and cheaper than orthodox veterinary treatment. Ethnoveterinary medical health care is the only alternative to “western” veterinary therapy (Alawa et al., 2002). Traditional medicine as defined by WHO (2000) is the sum total of the knowledge and practices, whether replicable or not, used in diagnosis, prevention and elimination of physical and mental or social imbalance and relying exclusively on practical experience. There is also an increasing awareness of the use of medicinal plants in treating many livestock disease (Abu et al., 2009).
Ethnoveterinary medicine or traditional animal health care comprises all practices, methods and indigenous knowledge which are applied to alleviate livestock diseases. Modern veterinary services and allopathic drugs are expensive and unavailable in some communities. Hence resource limited rural and peri-urban livestock farmers resort to the use of herbal remedies (Abu et al., 2009).
Garlic is widely distributed and used in all parts of the world as a spice and herbal medicine for the prevention and treatment of a variety of diseases ranging from infectious to heart disease. Raw garlic (Allium Sativum) used in Nigeria as a vermifuge was shown to have some activity against Ascaridia galli in chickens and to inhibit the embryonation of the eggs of Necator americanus and Ancylostoma caninum (Dalziel, 1937; Bastidas, 1970; Das and Thakuria, 1977). Kolawole et al. (2007), reported that crushed garlic mixed with feed for local chicken suffering of diarrhoea were cured in about seven days.
Japanese quail farming was introduced more than a decade ago in Nigeria (Haruna et al., 2008). They are reared by many farmers in different parts of the country and accepted by the populace especially because of their prolific nature, lean meat and low level of cholesterol in both meat and egg (Haruna et al., 2008). With a population of over 140 million people, Nigeria has over the years not been able to meet the Food and Agricultural Organization recommended minimum protein intake requirement of 65 g per person/day. (Haruna et al., 2008). This is partly because the expansion of cattle population cannot progress at a satisfactory rate to cope with the increasing demands for meat. This has given rise to the increase in commercial poultry production. However, since 1986, poultry production has been on the decline mainly due to high cost of feed, inadequate supply of day old chicks, diseases, high cost of drugs and biological. This led to the search for alternative cheaper sources of poultry production and subsequent introduction of quails in Nigeria (Haruna et al.,2008).
Quail meat and eggs are renowned for their high quality protein. The biological value and low caloric values makes it a choice of meat in hypertensive-prone individuals (Haruna et al., 1997). Garlic has medicinal value, it is cheap and available. Researching into its curative and prophylactic properties is beneficial not only in quail production but in poultry. Knowledge of the possible effects of the use of garlic on haematological parameters and pathological change will add information to the toxicological information of the herb which is widely consumed by human beings.
1.4 Aim of the Study
The aim of the study was to evaluate the efficacy of garlic in the prevention of pasteurellosis in Japanese quails
1.5 Objectives of the Study
The objectives of the research were to;
- Evaluate the efficacy of garlic in quails inoculated with Pasteurella multocida multocida serotype A:4,
- Determine the effects of garlic on some haematological values in quails inoculated with Pasteurella multocida multocida serotype A:4,
- Evaluate the pathological lesions in quails inoculated with Pasteurella multocida multocida serotype A:4 under treatment with garlic garlic.
1.6 Research Questions
- Is garlic effective in preventing disease in quails inoculated with Pasteurella multocida multocida serotype A:4
- What are the effects of garlic on PCV, TP, body weight cloacal temperatur
- Is there any pathological lesion in tissue of quails inoculated with Pasteurella multocida multocida A:4
