ABSTRACT
This experiment was carried out using a total of 16 tortoises (Kinixys erosa) weighing between 172.5g and 180g to determine their performance indices and water consumption of tortoise fed unripe boiled plantain mixed with palm oil under different watering regime in captivity. The tortoises were randomly divided into four Treatments with four replicates such that there were one animals per replicate. Treatment 1 was 24 hour (0700-0700 hr) watering, Treatment 2 was 12 hour “day” (07000-1900 hr) watering, and Treatment 3 was 12 hour “night” (1900-0700) watering and Treatment 4 was 6 hour “afternoon”. The experimental period lasted for 9 weeks.The proximate composition of boiled unripe plantain was determined. The mean weekly weight (g) change for Treatments 1, 2, 3 and 4 were 1.3, 2.5, 4.0 and 0.5 respectively. The mean feed consumption (g) of the tortoises for Treatments 1, 2, 3 and 4 were 9.73, 9.92, 9.63 and 9.55 respectively and were not significantly (p > 0.05) different. The mean FCE for Treatments 1, 2, 3 and 4 were 0.03, 0.26, 0.48 and 0.02 respectively and were not significantly (p >0.05) different. The mean weekly water intake (ml) for Treatments 1, 2, 3 and 4 were 10.11, 9.68, 9.55 and 9.98 respectively and were also not significantly( p > 0.05) different . The mean weekly feed to water ratio for Treatments 1, 2, 3 and 4 were 0.985, 1.035, 1.014 and 0.980 respectively and they were not significantly( p > 0.05) different. The mean Dressing Percentage of the tortoises was 24.46, 24.18, 26.43 and 26.2 for Treatments 1, 2, 3, and 4 respectively.
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
The perception of wildlife by most individuals is that wildlife means “wild animals” and which includes both the vertebrates and the non-vetebrates. This notion is however too sectional and narrow. By definition wild life is left as, essentially all living undomesticated organisms, the free-ranging terrestrial organisms (reptiles, amphibians, birds and mammals), microscopic animals (microfauna), sea dwellings animals and all plants which are outside the control of man. Hunting of wildlife meat referred Hitherto as bush meat has been an integral part of African future since the first man inhabited this continent (Mbotiji, 2002).
Mini-fauna species which includes small games as rodents, reptiles, birds, insects amongst others, constitute an important source of protein, contributing substantially to many household protein intake (FAO, 1997, Barnett, 2000). The consumption is sometimes recorded, even in nutritional studies (Annegers, 1973). They are relished for their flavouring and diversity they add to diets (Annegers, 1973, Laburthe-Torla, 1981).
The Federal Department of Forestry Nigeria (1987) reported that wildlife is most highly valued as food. Ajayi (1971) estimated that 80% of the southern people consume bushmeat and bushmeat supplies an average of 20% of the animal protein consumed.
1.1 Wildlife Management
An increase in the human population which has led to increase in the demand of wildlife resources at the expense of their population has led to concept of wild life management. Wildlife management is a component of conservation which involves controlling, directing and manipulation of wildlife population and habitats to increase the population of the wild resources, decrease population of the pest and stabilize the population, so that individuals can be harvested on a continuous basis without adverse effects, sustainable yield (Greg, 2009). Wildlife managements need to find a balance between species and ensure the perfect food chain functioning.
The management of wildlife requires help of many other scientific disciplines such as chemistry, biology, ecology, climatology and geology to get the best possible results.
1.2 Reptiles and Wildlife
Reptiles are the first true land dwellers to evolve among the vertebrates (Klemmer, 1975). They evolved from salamander-like ancestors. Living reptiles can be distinguished from the other tetra pods in that they are cold-blooded as well as bearing scutes or scales (Tudge 2000). Several living sub-groups are recognized; Testudines (tortoises and terrapins) with over 300 species, Sphenodontia (Tuaras from New Zealand) with over 2 species, Squamata (lizards, snakes and worm like snakes) approximately 9150 species, Crocodilian (crocodiles and the alligators) 23 species.
These reptiles which include snakes, lizards, tortoise and alligators amongst others have been mainly harvested for the flesh, skin or shell for various domestic purposes. Tortoise seems to be the only reptile without human prejudice (Klemmer, 1975). It is infact preferred because its harmless when compared to snakes (Wermuth, 1975).
1.3.0 Importance of Wildlife
Wildlife contributes to the welfare of man, especially to African populace which belongs to the developing nation. Some importance of wildlife includes:
1.3.1 Nutrition
Wildlife is typically viewed as bush meat. Bush meat is popular with both urban and city dwellers and provides 20 % of animal protein in southern Nigeria. The most commonly consumed species are small mammals including squirrels, grass cutters, giant rats, brush-tailed porcupines and bats (Ajayi, 1979; Martin, 1983; 1984; Anadu, 1987). An estimated total of 1,320,000 metric tonnes of bush meat was hunted by farmers in three ecological zones, within a six month period (Adeola & Decker, 1987). The range of species harvested is particularly diverse in West Africa, including a wide range of rodents and other small mammals and invertebrate species, perhaps due to the scarcity of larger mammals. African giant snails (Achatina sp. and Archachatina sp.) are popular among both urban and rural dwellers in West Africa (Ajayi, 1971; Anadu, 1987; Afolayan & Ajayi, 1983; Osemeobo, 1992). Snails are most abundant in the forest areas of the region during the rainy season when they are heavily exploited for food. A number of studies on the nutritional value of wild animal meat indicate that bush meat is comparable if not better than domestic meat. Larvae of the silkworm (Anaphe venata), which is used extensively for food in rural Nigeria, was found to contain more crude protein than other animal sources such as lamb and pork (Ashiru, 1998). The iron (Fe) content was superior to chicken and the larvae also contained six of the eight amino acids essential to the human body, threonine, valine, isoleucine, leucine, phenylalanine and lysine, thus making A. venata a useful supplement to protein and mineral deficient diets (Ashiru, 1988). With a fat content of only 1.3 % and iron content of 12.2 mg/100g in edible carcass, the nutritive value of snails is reported to be comparable to that of domestic livestock (Ajayi et al., 1978).
1.3.2 Cultures
Wildlife plays an invaluable role in the culture, belief and spiritual life of most rural community especially in West Africa. Some wildlife are believed to posses some extraordinary power, where in cases they are used in ceremonies for cleansing and their blood has been reported to be used in idol worship (Nwokoro et al.,1998). For ages in Africa, Asia and Latin America, wildlife is noted for its spiritual healing powers. Also, traditional healers of Africa use different animal parts including meat, hair, skin, tail, bones, teeth, fats, glands and faecal pellets for the treatment of a wide range of mental, physical and pre- and post-natal illnesses (Balinga, 1978; Ntiamoa-Baidu, 1992; Adeola, 1992; FAO, 1997 and 2000).
1.3.3 Medicinal value
In medicine, development of new drugs and treatments are largely dependent on wildlife and wildlife habitat. Interestingly, most pharmaceutical products are a result of discovering or developing wildlife species and not discoveries through the traditional chemistry principles. Today, most medicinal remedies contain at least one ingredient derived from a wild plant or animal, example, Snake venom is in much demand for its therapeutic properties: the two types of venom, haematoxin and neurotoxin are used in treatments for haemophilia and in sedatives and pain killers.
A large number of wild animal species and their products, used alone or with herbs, form the basis of the medicines used by traditional healers. Animal parts used include the meat, hair, skin, tail, bones, teeth, fat, glands and faecal pellets and the ailments treated range widely from mental and physical illnesses to antenatal care. Adeola (1992) recorded 23 species of wild animals including 16 mammals, six reptiles and a bird used for healing and preventive medicine in Nigeria. Another 34 species were used in fertility treatments and 33 species were used in potency and aphrodisiac medicines (Adeola, 1992).
1.3.4 Tourism and Foreign Exchange
Wildlife is one of the biggest industries in the world. It serves as a source of income or revenue to government, individuals, or agencies. Wildlife based tourism is particularly well developed in eastern and southern Africa where the industry contributes significantly to national incomes and is a key foreign currency earner in a number of countries. Kenya is cited as the most successful African Country in terms of tourism development and the industry earns approximately US$ 600 million a year, an income exceeded only by that from coffee.
According to Ayeni et al.(1982), between 3,000 and 10,000 visitors representing over 50 nationalities visits Kianji National park and Yankari game reserve where wildlife including tortoise is kept.
Wildlife also contributes to the GNP of various countries. For instance, Ayodele and Falade (1990) noted that in Nigeria, wildlife based tourism contributed 1.1% of export and 0.2% to the GNP.
1.3.5 Income and By-products
In the past hunters in Africa hunted for the family pot. Today most hunters are market hunters and a high proportion of hunters would choose to sell their quarry and purchase cheaper forms of protein such as fish to feed their families, so that the money left over can be used for other basic family needs. A total of 26,770 hunters were reported in Nigeria in 1963 (Afolayan, 1980), who subsist on hunting.
Apart from bush meat, wild animals contribute to local economies through their by-products such as skins, hides, bones, shells, horns, feathers and pelts. Some of these by products are used as ornaments also for example, ivory and rhino horn have intrinsic value and people will continue to choose such items and pay high prices for ornaments made from these even when there are substitutes. Also bowls and scoops have been made from tortoise shell.
1.3.6 Research
In medicine, development of new drugs and treatments are largely dependent on wildlife and wildlife habitat. Interestingly, most pharmaceutical products are a result of discovering or developing wildlife species and not discoveries through the traditional chemistry principles. For example, the Rhesus factor in use today in blood grouping in humans was first discovered in Rhema monkey (Ajayi, 1979). Also, the shell of tortoise has been reported to contain chondroitin sulphate, which is used in the treatment of joint degeneration (Dharmananda, 1999).
1.3.7 Preservation of the Ecology
Wildlife plays an essential role in the ecological and biological processes that are yet again significant to life. The normal functioning of the biosphere depends on endless interactions amongst animals, plants, and microorganisms. This, in turn, maintains and enhances human life further. To add on, these ecological processes are vital for agriculture, forestry, fisheries and other endeavors that support human life. Besides, there are several biological processes wherein wildlife plays a key role, such as pollinization, germination, seed dispersal, soil generation, nutrient cycling, predation, habitat maintenance, waste breakdown, and pest control.
1.4 OBJECTIVES
The experiment was carried out to determine;
- The performance indices and water intake of the serrated hinge back tortoise (Kinixys erosa Schweigger, 1812) under captivity fed on boiled unripe plantain mixed with palm oil.
- The effect of different watering regimes on feed and water intake.
