Abstract
Africa has become the epicentre and experimental laboratory for UN peacekeeping missions. The UN peacekeeping doctrine has evolved through numerous operational experiments in Africa culminating in the Responsibility to Protect (R2P) doctrine that has been erroneously portrayed as the doctrine of harmony of interests and of international solidarity designed to serve international interests. This thesis concludes that the UN peacekeeping doctrine conceals the fact that it is primarily designed to advance the self-interests of the big powers at the expense of the weak states in conflict situations. Peacekeeping in the Somalia is the largest peacekeeping force the United Nations has ever created. It has made itself available over the past decade in order to end violence and help develop this war-torn country. This thesis demonstrates that UN peacekeeping missions facilitate the continued looting of Africa’s natural resources by big powers whose international policies are designed to entrench their privileged positions in violation of host state sovereignty and at the expense of the suffering populations.
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
- Background of the study
Since the end of the Cold War, United Nations (UN) peacekeeping in Africa has taken centre stage at both the academic and policy levels in an endeavour by the world body to promote collective international peace and security on the continent. This development has triggered debate on policy formulation and execution of UN peacekeeping missions that has often been problematic in all fields of study. This is due to the fact that the dynamics of conflict internationally and regionally are always shifting and also because of the contending view points between Euro-centric and Afro-centric expectations on peacekeeping outcomes. A major contradiction and ethical problem arises when peacekeepers are deployed in a conflict country without the full and voluntary consent of the host country and are expected to protect the local civilian population yet it is the responsibility of the host state to protect its own citizens. In such situations, the host state’s responsibility of protecting own citizens is immediately usurped by the deployment of UN peacekeepers with a mandate of protecting local civilians in conflict situations, leaving the host state at the mercy of the peacekeepers. As a result of this peacekeeping practice, this thesis argues that UN peacekeeping missions in Africa are failing to fulfil their mandates as a result of the normative and ethical conflict and dilemma that exists between UN peacekeeping missions and safeguarding of nation state sovereignty especially where UN peacekeepers are involved in regime change activities against the host government. Whilst much has been written about UN peacekeeping missions in Africa, there has not been significant scholarly research specifically addressing the ethical tension and dilemma that continues to exist between UN peacekeeping missions on the continent and the aspect of nation state sovereignty. According to the UN Charter, nation states are sovereign within their territories and are immune to external interference except in grave circumstances, such as war crimes, genocide and crimes against humanity (United Nations Charter 1945). The UN sometimes deploys peacekeepers, without invitation or full consent from affected member states, as happened in Somalia in violation of its Charter which prohibits interference in internal affairs of member countries (Findlay 2002).In Sudan, President Al Bashir was coerced to host
For donkeys of days, the world has witnessed armed conflicts marked by systematic violence and mass atrocities against civilians, and has increasingly looked to the United Nations, and in particular to UN peacekeeping operations, to prevent and or to halt such crimes. The failures of missions to provide security in complex crises such as Somalia, and to protect civilians from mass atrocities in Rwanda and Bosnia, tested the fundamental principles and capabilities of UN peacekeeping operations and demonstrated that reform was urgently required. Since then, notable efforts have worked to improve the overall effectiveness of UN peacekeeping operations, including their capabilities to protect civilians. For a decade, the UN Security Council has also expressed its resolve to support more effective missions, and to put a greater spotlight on the protection of civilians, as seen by its series of statements and resolutions, and the request that the Secretary-General issue regular reports on the protection of civilians in armed conflict. More tangibly, UN peacekeeping mandates have changed, as the Council has shifted peacekeeping well beyond its traditional role of monitoring the implementation of peace agreements over the last decade. Modern peacekeeping missions are multidimensional, addressing the full spectrum of peace building activities, from providing secure environments to monitoring human rights and rebuilding the capacity of the state. Increasingly, such mandates also instruct peacekeeping missions to put an emphasis on the physical protection of civilians. As part of this evolution, ten UN peacekeeping operations have been explicitly mandated to “protect civilians under imminent threat of physical violence.” The first mission provided with this explicit mandate language, the UN peacekeeping operation in Sierra Leone, UNAMSIL, was authorized in 1999 inter alia “to afford protection to civilians under imminent threat of physical violence.”4 By 2009, the majority of the nearly 100,000 uniformed UN peacekeepers deployed worldwide operate with such mandates. The link between the protection of civilians and peacekeeping mandates is central. First, the safety and security of civilians is critical to the legitimacy and credibility of peacekeeping missions. Missions rely upon their legitimacy with the local civilian population and external observers alike to help build peace and maintain political momentum behind the peace process. Moreover, wherever peacekeepers deploy, they raise expectations among the local population and among those who view missions from afar that the reason for their presence is to support people at risk. As seen in Rwanda, the Balkans, Sierra Leone, Haiti, DRC and Somalia, among others, peacekeeping operations that are ill-prepared to address large-scale violence directed against civilians will falter and may even collapse. While missions work to manage high expectations, they also need to address the security of civilians to build and maintain the legitimacy and credibility needed to carry out their other mandated tasks to assist with the political and local reconsolidation efforts and peace building.
The city of Somalia is experiencing unrest primarily in its eastern region due to various ethnic and political differences. Violence and instability have always been an issue in this former Belgian colony. The issue at hand today is to try to maintain peace in an area that has experienced two wars within the past decade with violence continuing to this day. According to the United Nations, 3.8 million lives were lost to wars and there approximately 1,000 deaths per day as a direct result from the interior conflict of the Somalia. In addition, about 2.4 million people have been internally displaced and 388,000 people have been refugeed out of the country due to persisting violence in areas such as North and South Kivu, The Somalia is experiencing unrest primarily in its eastern region due to various ethnic and political differences. Violence and instability have always been an issue in this former Belgian colony. The issue at hand today is to try to maintain peace in an area that has experienced two wars within the past decade with violence continuing to this day. According to the United Nations, 3.8 million lives were lost to wars and there approximately 1,000 deaths per day as a direct result from the interior conflict of the DRC. In addition, about 2.4 million people have been internally displaced and 388,000 people have been refugee out of the country due to persisting violence in areas such as North and South Kivu, Katanga, and the Itori region. However, violence and unrest is not limited to these areas. Sexual violence is the worst and most prevalent problem in the DRC, with a reported 14,200 cases of rape registered from 2005 to 2007. Other problems include malnourishment, disease, and deaths by landmines. The DRC has the potential of being one of Africa’s richest countries, but is held back by its instability and constant conflict. Surrounded by nine other nations, the DRC is often central to regional conflict. Current violence involves influence from both Rwanda and Uganda, who have consistently tried to invade the region.
- STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM
According to Master Sun Tzu (1905) stated that ” for we to have peace we must first of all understand war” that is why the united nation UN forces have been using force since the late 1950’s in different contexts and constellations and there has been a general acceptance for the institute of peacekeeping in state practice, however the concept of peace itself is war. The dangers associated with peace keeping are numerous as the opposition will never give in without a fight, this fight has led to chaos, civilian casualties and loss of life and property, it is on this note that the researcher intends to investigate the role of united nation peace keeping mission in Africa.
- OBJECTIVE OF THE STUDY
The main objective of the study is to ascertain the evaluation challenges faced study the researcher intends to achieve the following objective;
- To ascertain the role of united nation peace keeping mission in Somalia
- To investigate the impact of peace keeping mission on the security of life and property of Somalia
- To ascertain the relationship between the UN peace Keeping mission and restoration of peace and order
- To investigate the effect of UN peace keeping mission on the economic development of Africa
- RESEARCH QUESTION
For the purpose of the study, the following research questions are formulated by the researcher;
- What is the role of UN peace keeping mission in Somalia?
- What is the impact of UN peace keeping mission on the security of life and property in Somalia?
- Is there any relationship between UN peace keeping mission and restoration of peace and order in Somalia?
- What is the effect of UN peace keeping mission on the economic growth of Africa?
- RESEARCH HYPOTHESES
For the purpose of the study; the following research hypotheses were formulated;
H0: UN peace keeping mission does not play any role in restoring peace in Somalia
H1: UN peace keeping mission plays a significant role in restoring peace and order in Somalia
H02: UN peace keeping mission does not have any impact on the protection of life and property in Somalia?
H2: UN peace keeping mission have a significant impact on the protection of life and property in Somalia
- SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY
It is believed that at the completion of the study, the findings will be of importance to the United Nation peace keeping envoy as the study will suggest ways of achieving more result in peace keeping mission in Africa. The study will also be of importance to researchers who wishes to embark on a study in similar topic as the findings will serve as a guide or reference point. The study will also be of importance to academia as the study will add to the pool of knowledge. Finally the study will be of importance to teachers, lecturers, students and the general public as the findings will expand the frontiers of knowledge.
- SCOPE AND LIMITATION OF THE STUDY
The scope of the study covers the role of united nation peace keeping mission in Africa with emphasis on Somalia. But in the cause of the study; the researcher encounters some constrain which limited the scope of the study. Some of these constrain are enumerated below.
(a)Availability of research material: The research material available to the researcher is insufficient thereby limiting the study.
(b)Time: The time frame allocated to the study does not enhance wider coverage as the researcher has to combine other academic activities and examinations with the study.
(c)Finance: The finance available for the research work does not allow for wider coverage as resources are very limited as the researcher has other academic bills to cover.
1.8 RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY
Research design in this thesis refers to the methodology adopted for data collection as well as data generation to satisfy the requirements of the study. Based on the preliminary literature review and the objectives of the study, this research adopted a predominantly historical and comparative case study approach and design.
The researcher embarked on a rigorous, systematic investigation to find answers to the research questions stated above. The research involved exploring repetitively, carefully and closely some major phenomenon regarding ethical challenges existing between UN peacekeeping missions in Africa and violation of host state sovereignty. The qualitative research methodology adopted, served as a strategy of enquiry that moved from the underlying philosophical assumptions to research design and data collection. The research design served as a framework and a guide in systematic data collection and analysis. The research adopted a qualitative approach as its methodology since qualitative research yields data that provides depth and detail to create understanding of phenomena and lived experiences (Bowen 2005). The research used grounded theory with comparative study being a product, rather than a method of this research project. To evaluate the challenges faced by united nations peace keeping in Africa, the researcher used the comparative case study approach focusing on a comprehensive comparison between four UN peacekeeping missions in Africa: Somalia. Case study research falls under qualitative research and it focusses on providing a detailed analysis of one or more cases. According to Hancock (1998:6) the case study approach offers “richness and depth of information not usually offered by other methods.” The research attempted to illustrate the relationship between practical peacekeeping and theoretical debates in other sub-fields of ethics, international relations and international diplomacy.
A focused comparison offered methodological advantages for a better understanding of ethical variables associated with UN peacekeeping missions in Africa. Congo experienced traditional peacekeeping operations that ended with the UN undertaking offensive military operations in violation of existing peacekeeping principles. Somalia experienced humanitarian peacekeeping intervention soon after the end of the Cold War where UN sponsored peacekeepers launched offensive operations to kill or capture General Mohammad Farah Aideed the leading warlord. In Rwanda, despite having the worst humanitarian disaster among the case studies under investigation in which approximately one million people were butchered in cold blood, the affected population did not benefit from the sympathy of the international community reflecting the organized hypocritical nature of the UNSC decision making process regarding peacekeeping operations. In Darfur, a very weak and ineffective AU/UN hybrid peacekeeping mission was deployed yet the local population was being subjected to crimes against humanity. The experiences of all four countries under study are very different and therefore offer great scope for the study of ethical challenges to UN peacekeeping in Africa and how they impact on host state sovereignty.
This research study was based on various sources of data and information, some of which include the following: perusal and study of primary official documents on UN peacekeeping missions and international diplomacy regarding state sovereignty with specific reference to countries under study and the examination of secondary published and internet material on the subject under study. Personal interviews were extensively used in this study and the target groups included diplomats accredited to Zimbabwe whose countries have played host to the missions under study. Current and previous force commanders of both military and civilian police were contacted to get first-hand information of their views and experiences regarding the ethical dilemma between UN peacekeeping operations and host state sovereignty. Where feasible and applicable, participants (military and civilian police) and others were interviewed to gather detailed personal insights of the subject under study.
Resources of various university library facilities as well as the Regional Peacekeeping Training Centre (RPTC) library in Harare, were extensively used to gather valuable secondary data. Equally, additional valuable data was obtained from the AU Headquarters in Addis Abba Ethiopia through extensive interviews with various authorities and diplomats who proved to be extremely valuable. Additional secondary information was accessed from the AU peacekeeping department. Officials at the AU headquarters responsible for peacekeeping in Africa were interviewed for their views and they shared with the researcher, their detailed perspectives at the strategic and operational levels of UN peacekeeping operations. Previous force commanders of both military and civilian police were approached and interviewed in order to get first-hand information of their views and experiences. An interview guide was extensively used during the information gathering stage of the research project.
To enhance the trustworthiness of the research findings the researcher was guided by the recommendations made by Denzin and Lincoln (1994) who stated that the safeguarding of credibility, transferability, dependability and conformability of research findings was crucial throughout the study. In order to realise and guarantee the trustworthiness of the research findings, the researcher carried out interviews in the most rigorous ways possible in order to enhance the reliability and validity of the findings.
1.9 DEFINITION OF TERMS
United Nation (UN)
The United Nations (UN) is an intergovernmental organization to promote international co-operation. A replacement for the ineffective League of Nations, the organization was established on 24 October 1945 after World War II in order to prevent another such conflict. At its founding, the UN had 51 member states; there are now 193. The headquarters of the UN is in Manhattan, New York City, and experiences extraterritoriality. Further main offices are situated in Geneva, Nairobi, and Vienna.
Peace keeping
Peacekeeping refers to activities intended to create conditions that favor lasting peace. Research generally finds that peacekeeping reduces civilian and battlefield deaths and reduces the risk of renewed warfare.
Within the United Nations (UN) group of nation-state governments and organizations, there is a general understanding that at the international level, peacekeepers monitor and observe peace processes in post-conflict areas, and may assist ex-combatants in implementing peace agreement commitments that they have undertaken
Africa
Africa is the world's second-largest and second-most-populous continent. At about 30.3 million km² (11.7 million square miles) including adjacent islands, it covers 6% of Earth‘s total surface area and 20.4 % of its total land area. With 1.2 billion people as of 2016, it accounts for about 16% of the world's human population
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